You Can Spend Your Whole Life Learning to Create Art and Still Not Have the Mastery of a Child

Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive job that requires dedication, persistence, and hard piece of work. If you lot're reading this, then you probably already know that.

What you lot might non know is that there are strategies that can assistance you written report more effectively, so that you make the near of your time and energy. This handout first explains some of the key principles that guide constructive language learning, and and then describes activities that can assist you put these principles into practice. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills abound.

Key principles of linguistic communication learning

The Basics:

First, let's talk nigh the basics. Research in this area (chosen "2nd language acquisition" in academia) suggests that there are three key elements to learning a new language.

• The commencement is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying beingness exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to understand information technology.
• Comprehensible output is the 2d element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language.
• The third element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[1]

Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas.

These three elements are the building blocks of your linguistic communication practise, and an effective report plan will maximize all three. The more you listen and read (input), the more than y'all speak and write (output), the more y'all go dorsum over what yous've done and acquire from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills will grow.

Practice: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: agreement (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback).

Seek balance

Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If y'all focus exclusively on just one activity, the others autumn behind.

This is actually a mutual pitfall for language learners. For example, it's easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part considering written language is often readily accessible—for one matter, yous have a whole textbook full of information technology. This is too true of the three key elements: information technology'south insufficiently easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and practice understanding them. But neglecting the other two key principles (output and feedback/review) tin can slow down linguistic communication growth.

Instead, what yous demand is a balanced study plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all 3 cardinal principles.

DO: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three fundamental principles—input, output, and feedback/review.

Errors are of import

Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fearfulness of making a mistake, of saying the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not beingness able to notice the right give-and-take, and so on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will be very public.

The affair is, you NEED to make those mistakes. Ane of the key principles of linguistic communication learning is all about making errors and so learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you're not willing to brand errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a mistake negatively affects two of the three key principles of language learning!

And then what exercise you exercise? In part, you may need to push yourself to go comfortable with making errors. Nevertheless, y'all should also look for ways to go low-stakes practice: create situations in which you experience more than comfy trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes.

For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is often more than comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they're usually easier to find—you've got a whole class full of potential partners!

Practise: Acquire to appreciate mistakes, and push button yourself to become more comfortable with making errors.

Do: Create opportunities for 'low-stakes' practice, where you'll feel comfy practicing and making mistakes.

Spread information technology out

Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, then you lot'll want to use your report time as finer as possible. According to research in educational and cerebral psychology, one of the most effective learning strategies is distributed exercise. This concept has two main components: spacing, which is breaking study time upward into multiple small sessions, and separation, which ways spreading those sessions out over time.[2]

For example, let'due south imagine you have a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Dominicus, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a full of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study program will be the about effective?

(A) Study for thirty minutes on Thursday.
(B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.
(C) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday.
(D) Study for thirty minutes on Lord's day.

If you look at the total fourth dimension spent studying, all iv options are exactly the same. But inquiry suggests that option C is the most effective fashion to manage your fourth dimension: instead of studying the vocabulary all at in one case, y'all've spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you've also increased the amount of time between study sessions. (And aye, this is as well why "cramming" isn't a adept study plan!)

Exercise: Suspension upward your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time.

Bump up your memory

Retentivity is a critical part of whatsoever kind of studying, and effective memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you're not "good at" memorizing things, don't despair! Although people often recollect of retentivity every bit a stock-still quality, it'south really a skill that you can better through deliberate practice.

At that place's a considerable amount of enquiry on how retentiveness works, every bit well as a wide range of strategies for improving retention. For example, scientific experiments show that our short-term memory can only hold about seven pieces of new information at once. Then if you're working on a long list of new vocabulary words, start by breaking it upwardly into smaller chunks, and written report 1 shorter section at a time. Additionally, research also suggests that recall-based study methods are most effective. This ways that actively trying to recall data is more than effective than merely reviewing data; essentially, cocky-testing will help y'all more than than re-reading your notes volition.[4]

The all-time way to start working on your retentivity is to build on the techniques that you already know work for y'all. For example, if associating a give-and-take with a motion-picture show is constructive for you, and so you should comprise images into your vocabulary practice. Withal, if yous're not sure where to start, hither's a "beginner" formula for memorizing a new word: use the discussion at least five times the first day that yous acquire it, and then multiple times over the week, at least once every twenty-four hour period.

If you're interested in more tips for improving your memory, cheque out our resource on memorization strategies.

In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques piece of work best for you, it's also important to actively protect your retentivity. For case, experiencing a potent emotion has been shown to sharply subtract the ability to memorize unrelated content. (So if you lot've just watched a horror moving picture, it's probably non a great time for vocabulary review!)

To get the most out of your report time, here's a listing of common "memory killers" to avoid:

Stress and feet: Just similar other stiff emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and call up information.

Data overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great thought, but it's actually a really ineffective use of fourth dimension. In fact, taking a brusk break every xxx minutes helps ameliorate focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics.

Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less constructive your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is specially detrimental, then those late-night study sessions might really practise more harm than skillful!

Multitasking: As you may have noticed, all of these "memory killers" are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of lark. In fact, hither'south a neat rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if y'all're not supposed to practice information technology while driving, and so you lot shouldn't do it while studying. (Yes, that ways drinking, texting, and watching Netflix "in the background" are all NOs.)

DO: Increase memorization past breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a fourth dimension, and past using call back-based strategies like cocky-testing.

DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the memory techniques that piece of work best for you into your written report plan.

Vocab is rex

Want to know a secret? Vocabulary is more important than grammar.
DISCLAIMER: This does Not mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammer, y'all won't know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells you how to combine words into sentences. And plain, if y'all're in a foreign language class, you're going to need to study ALL the textile to do well, and that will definitely include grammer.
The more vocabulary yous know, the more quickly you can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: agreement more words directly translates into more input, producing more than words ways more output, and more than output means more than opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you lot're interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more beneficial to communication than grammar is. Being able to produce words will help get your meaning across, even if what yous say is not perfectly grammatical.[v]

Of course, in society to become fully fluent in your new linguistic communication, somewhen yous will need strong grammar skills. Only over again, this is something that having a potent, well-developed vocabulary will help with. Since grammer dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will help improve your agreement of how those grammatical relationships work.

DO: Blueprint a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary.

Activities

Now that we've talked about the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, let's focus on activities: practical suggestions to aid yous observe new ways to abound your language skills!

Find real-life sources

Since one of the main 3 components of language learning is input, expect for ways to expose yourself to as much of the linguistic communication you're learning as possible. But this doesn't hateful reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that yous're excited most). Instead, await for "authentic" examples of the linguistic communication, things yous'll actually enjoy and look forward to practicing with, even if yous don't sympathize every give-and-take!

Here are some examples to get you started:

Newspaper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and one time you've tried reading them a few times, it's like shooting fish in a barrel to translate the key parts to check your understanding. Look for a topic you're already interested in and follow it with a news reader app!

Books: Children'due south picture show books and books yous've read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library oft has great options bachelor for free!

TV shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~fifteen minute segments. Another great option is to lookout man first without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the linguistic communication you're learning, and and so finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Soap operas are also great options (specially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times.

Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can be especially well suited to language practice, since you're likely to memorize the ones you enjoy. Inquire a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if y'all're struggling to detect good examples. Children's songs tin also exist fun practice tools.

Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and every bit a bonus you'll frequently get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many different languages.

Too, consider tweaking some of your media settings to "bump upward" your casual language exposure. For case, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences will force you to collaborate with the language you're learning, fifty-fifty when y'all're (more often than not) wasting fourth dimension.

Pro tips

Improve the effectiveness of this action past using the post-obit suggestions!

Ho-hum it down: If you lot're listening to a podcast or sound volume, try slowing downwardly the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-downwardly audio nevertheless doesn't sound too strange. Also, make certain to accept breaks frequently to assistance yous process what you've just heard.

Combine your senses: In many cases, you lot can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can help you improve your comprehension. For case, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include:

• Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts bachelor online, especially for pieces that are a few days old.
• Amazon'southward Kindle offers an "immersive reading" pick that syncs audio books with text.
• TED talks come up in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript.
• If you lot're an ESL student, the ESL Bits website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and information technology likewise has adaptable audio speeds!

Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, notice a source that you lot really relish, and commit to experiencing it but in the language you're learning. Having a go-to program that you love volition help proceed you lot motivated. For example, if you love podcast/radio story programs like "Radiolab" and are learning Spanish, bank check out "Radio Ambulante."

Hold shadow conversations

A key part of learning a new linguistic communication involves preparation your ear. Dissimilar written language, spoken language doesn't have the same context clues that assist yous decipher and divide out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to "smoosh" words together, which is even more than confusing for language learners![6] In function, this is why listening to real-life sources can be so helpful (see the previous activeness).

However, fifty-fifty start language learners tin can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-give-and-take, even when you don't know what all of the words mean. This helps yous get used to the rhythm and patterns of the linguistic communication, too as acquire to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of speech communication. Another great strategy involves holding do conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times.

Both of these strategies are peachy means to help you acquire and retain new vocabulary, and they besides increase your language output in a low-stakes practice setting!

Instance: If y'all've got a homework do that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few extra steps to get the nigh benefit:

• After you've listened to the clip once, shadow the conversation in brusk sections (retrieve ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words every bit accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing.
• Once you can accurately shadow the unabridged clip, and so focus on understanding the meaning of the material, and answer any homework questions related to the clip.
• At present, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: think of what you would want to say in a existent-life state of affairs like this i, and exercise information technology until y'all can respond confidently to whatsoever side of the exchange.

Become a collector

Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a large priority. This is especially true when you're in an immersion surroundings (studying abroad, etc), but it's likewise something that you can practice on a regular basis fifty-fifty when you're at home.

Basically, you need to collect words: whatsoever time yous encounter a new discussion, you desire to capture it by recording it in some way. The easiest way to exercise this is in a small pocket notebook, merely yous could too put a annotation in your telephone, ship a text or email to yourself, or even tape yourself saying it. The central point is to capture the discussion as quickly and easily equally possible. As well, don't worry also much about spelling or definitions in the moment: y'all'll bargain with those later.

Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, voice memo, etc), information technology'south merely the starting time part of the collection procedure. Adjacent, you'll demand to review each of the words y'all've recorded. This is something you'll practise on a regular basis, then that you lot can actually use the words you've recorded. Depending on how many new words you're collecting, it might be every solar day, every few days, or once a calendar week. This is the time when you find the right spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an example, and and then on.

To brand this process as effective every bit possible, yous also desire to have some sort of system that helps y'all record and organize your word drove. If y'all like newspaper-based methods, then flashcards can be easily organized in index card boxes, though you might desire to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. Still, digital tools are especially helpful with this kind of data, and there are tons of apps that tin can aid you organize a large vocabulary drove. Just y'all don't need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works nifty for most cases.

Finally, you also want to brand sure to utilize your word collection! Not only practice you need to learn new words in one case you add them, yous'll also demand regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another place where digital tools shine, since it's like shooting fish in a barrel to access the entire collection at any fourth dimension, making it easier to written report and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that yous incorporate review along with learning new words.

The 4 bones steps of word collection

1. Capture new words. Listen for them in grade, seek them out in conversations, detect them in your "accurate sources," etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions.
2. Review your new words. Establish a routine and then that you regularly "empty out" your recording tool and add together the new words to your collection.
3. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized system for your collection; mutual tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards.
4. Utilize your words! Brand sure you lot're learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words.

Pro tips

• If you're struggling to find new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed past the number of words you could collect—then endeavour working "backwards." Instead of looking for new words in the language you're learning, recollect about the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, remember about the topics you oft discuss in your native language. Practice yous know how to talk virtually those things in the linguistic communication you're learning? Hobbies and other classes are often corking places to beginning.
• If you're in a strange language class, you tin can use the aforementioned word collection system to help you lot learn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you want to requite those words extra attention. If you're using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating dissimilar card "sets" to help you organize them.

Flashcard zen

Flashcards are ane of the well-nigh common tools that language learners use. There is a skilful reason for this: they're easily portable, they're excellent for learning brusk pieces of information (like new words), and used correctly they're a great call back-based study strategy. However, flashcards are not without issues. For case, information technology's far besides easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and then spend comparatively little fourth dimension actually using them! The post-obit tips draw means to utilise flashcards in a strategic and effective fashion.

Less is more

The more time you spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…simply if you don't make flashcards, then you don't have any to use. The indicate behind this paradox is that you desire to minimize the fourth dimension and try you put into the flashcard ready-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can really harm you: if y'all focus on making absolutely "perfect" flashcards, then you're really just wasting fourth dimension.

Similarly, y'all too want to minimize the volume of information you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should not exist pages of notes in a smaller format, particularly when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each carte du jour should have only enough information on information technology to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a good flashcard will serve as a "cue" that triggers your retention. This style, you're forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain strong memories.

Mix information technology up

Another common flashcard consequence is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. Just in existent life, you lot'll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. But practicing vocabulary in rote drills may finish upwards slowing you downwards when you lot need to actually utilise the words.[7]

One example of this is the "translation" phenomenon: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the discussion in your native language. If you're always translating discussion-for-give-and-take in your head, and so it takes much longer to empathise and interact. A swell style to reduce this issue is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, y'all might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, you could fifty-fifty use audio files.

Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is "bab" (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word:

• Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on ane side, and in English on the other
• Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Standard arabic give-and-take on 1 side, and the spoken discussion in English on the other
• Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other

You can also combine these types to make different hybrid-style flashcards. Over again, don't try to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that volition push you to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Not all of your flashcards have to apply non-written cues, but it'due south a great way to add variety and forestall "translation" retentivity.

Additionally, make certain to practice using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if yous've already gone through a gear up of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next time you employ it, so that y'all're getting prompted past the language yous're learning.

Y'all can also avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization past making sure to practice using the words in context. For example, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up past using the word in a sentence. This is specially skillful for words yous've already learned and are at present reviewing. Y'all can also turn this into a game, where you brand up "mad-lib" style sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If you're working with a partner or study group, yous can too employ flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary.

Get in a habit

Ultimately, flashcards are simply a tool, albeit 1 that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more time yous put in, improve your results will be: flashcards work best when used often and consistently. If y'all want to get the most out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular addiction. Here are some tips to continue in mind:

Minor sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and exercise each prepare several times before moving on to the next one. Likewise, make sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and one time you've reviewed a gear up of words, put it aside for a 24-hour interval or two before reviewing it again.

Increase portability: Make certain y'all have full reward of the portable nature of flashcards. If y'all're using paper, so consider using a folder band and hole punch to keep minor sets together. You might too use smaller cards: since y'all'll be making simple cards (minimalism!), yous could probably cutting a regular 3"x5" index carte du jour into halves (or even quarters) and withal take more than plenty room! Even if you use total-sized paper cards, y'all increase portability by being selective in the number you take with y'all. Remember, y'all want to space out your sets and reps, so it isn't necessary to bear all your cards with you all the time. If yous're using digital tools, look for apps that can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc.

Wasted' time: Since flashcards are so portable, they're a corking style to plough "wasted" time into useful fourth dimension. How much time do you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Wellness? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open up your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you're doing modest sets information technology won't have very long to get through one, and you've just bumped up your number of reps for the twenty-four hours!

Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you've established a behavior pattern, you discover yourself doing it without thinking about it. And then recollect about how you tin create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using "wasted" time is a good start, especially if you have a daily coach commute. What nearly taking 5 minutes every morning to practice vocabulary review while you lot beverage your java? Or making it your first "after-dinner to do" once yous've finished eating? One time you find ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, y'all can use the power of habit to aid abound your vocabulary.

Periodic review: Once you've learned new words, you're non done with those flashcards—instead, use them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might exercise a review ready once each day, or the review words tin be mixed in with your electric current learning sets (this is a great manner to keep your word drove going stiff!).

Brand it fun

Learning a new linguistic communication is a lot of work, merely that's not what motivated yous to beginning studying it in the first identify, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even study literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this language in the outset place, information technology'southward probably a lot more fun than all this studying is.

Here'south the affair: whenever you can exercise something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you lot to study your new linguistic communication, or you find something new and exciting almost the language you're studying or the cultures that use it, utilize your excitement to heave your motivation. Information technology'due south what will keep you going—and that kind of persistence is a key factor in language learning success.[viii]

Merely in add-on to staying focused on what you enjoy, you tin can too deliberately create fun social activities that also help you grow your language skills. For example, try hosting a dinner and movie "theme" night with friends who are studying the same language. Create a "mini-immersion" surroundings: watch movies in the linguistic communication you lot're learning, cook some accurate cuisine, and try to speak only in your new (shared!) linguistic communication. Information technology's a great way to get some accurate, depression-stakes do. (Plus, it'southward a neat excuse for a party!)

Parting advice

In add-on to this handout, there are lots of resource to help you lot with your language learning goals.

• If you're in a language course, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors oft accept great advice for study strategies—in addition to their pedagogy experience, at one point they were learning a new linguistic communication, merely like you lot are!
• Bank check out what the language department offers: maybe there is a peer tutoring program, or chat tables (aka "language coffee hours"), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments oft have online resources also, and so be sure to check out their websites.
• Look for other campus organizations that offer linguistic communication learning resources, such as global studies and student groups.

UNC language departments, programs, and curricula

• Section of Asian Studies
• Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies
• Department of Romance Studies
• Department of German and Slavic Languages and Literatures
• Program in American Indian and Indigenous Studies
• Curriculum in Global studies

Works consulted

Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to linguistic communication learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language business firm.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, Thou. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), iv-58.

Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, S. T. (1995). Readings on 2nd language conquering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in 2nd language acquisition. Readings on 2nd language acquisition, 138-160.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419.

Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999.

Son, 50. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(iii), 379-399.

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[one] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999

[2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012

[3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional bug. The Modernistic Language Periodical,73(4), 404-419.

[4] Dunlosky et al, 2013

[5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to linguistic communication learning fun and cocky-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse.

[vi] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998

[7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989

[viii] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995.

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